Artificial oocyte activation

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides novel methods for improving the efficiency of artificial activation of unfertilized mammalian oocytes by reducing the intracellular concentration of Zn 2+  in the oocyte. The methods of the invention may additionally comprise a preceding step of increasing the intracellular concentration of Ca 2+  in the oocyte prior to reduction of the intracellular Zn 2+  concentration. The invention further provides unfertilized oocytes activated by the disclosed methods and viable mammalian animals produced from unfertilized oocytes activated by the disclosed methods.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos.61/963,246, filed Nov. 27, 2013, and 61/997,176, filed May 23, 2014,herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under grant number U42RR018877 awarded by the National Swine Resource and Research Center. Thegovernment has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the fields of animal husbandry andbiomedicine, more specifically, to a method for improving the cloning ofmammals.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), i.e., cloning, can be used togenerate genetically engineered animals, preserve endangered species,and produce animals with a select genetic background. However, currentSCNT technology is inefficient as only one percent of generated embryosare able to reach term development. One of the factors that contributesto the poor efficiency is the effectiveness of the artificial oocyteactivation process, an essential procedure in SCNT. There is a greatneed for better approaches for artificial oocyte activation.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of activating anunfertilized livestock or domestic mammalian oocyte comprisingdecreasing intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration of the oocyte by contactingthe oocyte with a Zn²⁺ binding moiety. In one embodiment, the Zn²⁺binding moiety comprises a concentration of between approximately 10 μMto approximately 500 μM, for instance, between approximately 100 μM toapproximately 250 μM, such as approximately 200 μM. In anotherembodiment, the Zn²⁺ binding moiety contacts the oocyte for a period oftime comprising between approximately 1 minute to approximately 5 hours,for instance, between approximately 30 minutes to approximately 2.5hours, such as approximately 30 minutes.

In further embodiments, the present method of activating an unfertilizedlivestock or domestic mammalian oocyte additionally comprises the stepof increasing intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte prior todecreasing the intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration of the oocyte. In oneembodiment, the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte is notincreased in an amount sufficient to induce oocyte activation, forinstance, the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte may beincreased approximately ten times less than the amount sufficient toinduce oocyte activation. In certain embodiments, in methods where theintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte is not increased in anamount sufficient to induce oocyte activation, the Zn²⁺ binding moietymay comprise a concentration of between approximately 1 μM toapproximately 500 μM, for instance between approximately 100 μM toapproximately 200 μM, such as approximately 200 μM. In otherembodiments, in methods where the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ofthe oocyte is not increased in an amount sufficient to induce oocyteactivation, the Zn²⁺ binding moiety may contact the oocyte for a periodof time comprising between approximately 1 minutes to approximately 12hours, for instance, between approximately 10 minutes to approximately 2hours, such as approximately 30 minutes.

In still further embodiments, the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ofthe oocyte may be increased in an amount sufficient to induce oocyteactivation. In certain embodiments, in methods where the intracellularCa²⁺ concentration of the oocyte is increased in an amount sufficient toinduce oocyte activation, the Zn²⁺ binding moiety may comprise aconcentration of between approximately 0.1 μM to approximately 100 μM,for instance, between approximately 1 μM to approximately 10 μM, such asapproximately 5 μM or approximately 10 μM. In other embodiments, inmethods where the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte isincreased in an amount sufficient to induce oocyte activation, the Zn²⁺binding moiety contacts the oocyte for a period of time comprisingbetween approximately 1 minutes to approximately 5 hours, for instance,between approximately 10 minutes to approximately 30 minutes, such asapproximately 30 minutes.

In certain embodiments, in methods of the present invention theintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte is increased by chemicalor physical means or a combination thereof that induce calcium entryinto the oocyte or release of internal calcium stores. In particularembodiments, the increase in the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of theoocyte by chemical means comprises treatment with a calcium containingmedium, a calcium salt containing medium, thimerosal containing medium,ethanol containing medium, inositol trisphosphate containing medium, acalcium ionophore containing medium, a sodium-free medium or acombination thereof. For instance, In some embodiments, the chemicaltreatment comprises treatment with a medium comprising a Ca²⁺concentration of between approximately 0.1 mM and approximately 250 mM,for instance, between approximately 0.1 mM and 1 mM. In otherembodiments, in methods of the present invention, the increase in theintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte by physical meanscomprises application of an electrical stimulus.

In yet a further embodiment of the present invention, the Zn²⁺ bindingmoiety comprises TPEN(N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine). In otherembodiments, the unfertilized livestock or domestic mammalian oocyte isa nuclear transfer oocyte. In additional embodiments, the unfertilizedlivestock or domestic mammalian oocyte is selected from the groupconsisting of a porcine oocyte, bovine oocyte, ovine oocyte, goatoocyte, horse oocyte, canine oocyte and feline oocyte.

In another aspect, provided herein is a parthenogenetic oocyte activatedby the methods of the present invention. In still another aspect,provided herein is a nuclear transfer oocyte activated by the methods ofthe present invention.

In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a viable livestockor domestic mammalian animal produced from an unfertilized livestock ordomestic mammalian oocyte activated by the methods of the invention,wherein the animal comprises the genomic DNA from a donor cell otherthan the oocyte and the mitochondrial DNA from the oocyte. In certainembodiments, the animal comprises epigenetic features different from theepigenetic features of the donor cell. In particular embodiments, theepigenetic features different from the epigenetic features of the donorcell are DNA methylation sites or histone modifications. In furtherembodiments, the animal is selected from the group consisting of aporcine animal, bovine animal, ovine animal, goat, horse, dog and cat.

In a further aspect, the present invention provides a method ofactivating an unfertilized mammalian oocyte comprising increasingintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte by contacting the oocytewith a medium comprising a calcium concentration of approximately 0.1 mMand decreasing intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration of the oocyte bycontacting the oocyte with a Zn²⁺ binding moiety at a concentration ofapproximately 200 μM for a period of time comprising approximately 30minutes.

In still a further aspect, the present invention provides a method ofactivating an unfertilized mammalian oocyte comprising increasingintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte by contacting the oocytewith a medium comprising a calcium concentration of approximately 1.0 mMand decreasing intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration of the oocyte bycontacting the oocyte with a Zn²⁺ binding moiety at a concentration ofapproximately 5 μM for a period of time comprising approximately 30minutes.

In yet a further aspect, the present invention provides a method ofactivating an unfertilized mammalian oocyte comprising increasingintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte by contacting the oocytewith a medium comprising a calcium concentration of approximately 1.0 mMand decreasing intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration of the oocyte bycontacting the oocyte with a Zn²⁺ binding moiety at a concentration ofapproximately 10 μM for a period of time comprising approximately 30minutes.

In an additional aspect, the invention provides a method for activatingan unfertilized mammalian oocyte, comprising the steps of (a) increasingCa²⁺ concentration of said oocyte, and (b) subsequently decreasing Zn²⁺concentration of said oocyte by treatment of Zn²⁺ removing agent. In oneembodiment, the Zn²⁺ removing agent isN,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine (TPEN). In anotherembodiment, the unfertilized mammalian oocyte is a porcine somatic cellnuclear transfer embryo. In yet another embodiment, the TPENconcentration ranges between 0.1 μM to 100 μM. In still anotherembodiment, the TPEN concentration is 5 μM to 10 μM.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method for activating anunfertilized mammalian oocyte, comprising the steps of (a) providing aminor Ca²⁺ concentration increase of said oocyte, and (b) subsequentlydecreasing Zn²⁺ concentration of said oocyte by treatment of Zn²⁺removing agent. In one embodiment, the Zn²⁺ removing agent isN,N,N′,N-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine (TPEN). In anotherembodiment, the unfertilized mammalian oocyte is a porcine somatic cellnuclear transfer embryo. In yet another embodiment, the TPENconcentration is higher than 10 μM. In still another embodiment, theTPEN concentration is 200 μM.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding of the features and advantages of thepresent invention, reference is now made to the detailed description ofthe invention along with the accompanying figures:

FIG. 1A—Graphical representation demonstrating thatN,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine (TPEN) does notinduce a Ca²⁺ increase in Metaphase II (MII) oocytes. The graphdemonstrates the Ca²⁺ increase after treating MII stage oocytes withthimerosal, an oocyte activating compound.

FIG. 1B—Graphical representation demonstrating that TPEN does not inducea Ca²⁺ increase in MII oocytes. The graph demonstrates the lack of Ca²⁺increase from TPEN. No Ca²⁺ increase was detected when MII stage oocyteswere exposed to various concentrations of TPEN. The arrow indicates whenthe MII oocytes were exposed to TPEN.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides novel methods for improving theefficiency of artificial oocyte activation of unfertilized mammalianoocytes. In particular, the invention provides methods for oocyteactivation through reduction of intracellular Zn²⁺. The methods ofoocyte activation of the present invention by reduction of intracellularZn²⁺ in the unfertilized oocyte may be either independent or dependentof conventional oocyte activation methods. For instance, in oneembodiment, the reduction of intracellular Zn²⁺ is sufficient toactivate an unfertilized oocyte without being coupled with a priorincrease in intracellular Ca²⁺. In another embodiment, the reduction ofintracellular Zn²⁺ is preceded by a Ca²⁺ increase in the unfertilizedoocyte.

In certain embodiments the Ca²⁺ increase in the unfertilized oocyte maybe a minor increase, for instance less than the amount that issufficient to activate an unfertilized oocyte alone. In anotherembodiment, the Ca²⁺ increase in the unfertilized oocyte may be anamount equal to or greater than the amount that is sufficient toactivate an unfertilized oocyte alone.

Methods for artificial oocyte activation by increasing Ca²⁺ release inthe oocyte have been studied with limited success, especially inparthenogenetic and somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) porcine embryodevelopment. Conventional methods to increase intracellular Ca²⁺,including electroporation or thimerosal treatment followed by treatmentwith dithiothreitol (THI/DTT), are commonly employed in activating SCNTembryos, however, the efficiency and subsequent development isrelatively low. The present invention thus provides methods to increasethe developmental potential of artificially activated oocytes andincrease the efficiency of oocyte activation and subsequent developmentduring SCNT through a treatment with a Zn²⁺ binding moiety and, incertain embodiments, combined with a Ca²⁺ stimulus. The presentinvention thus overcomes the difficulties in the art regardingartificial oocyte activation by conventional intracellular oocyte Ca²⁺increase through the use of Zn²⁺ binding moieties, such as Zn²⁺chelators, for the removal of Zn²⁺.

In nature, penetration of the sperm head into the cytoplasm of theoocyte causes repetitive calcium increases referred as Ca²⁺oscillations. These oscillations result from the release ofphospholipase C (PLC)-zeta from the sperm head. The Ca²⁺ oscillationsactivate Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and theCaMKII phosphorylates early mitotic inhibitor 2 (EMI2, also known asFBXO43) thus relieving anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) fromFBXO43-mediated inhibition. These events lead to the degradation ofcyclin B, a subunit of M-phase promoting factor (MPF).

Most conventional artificial activation methods induce an intracellularCa²⁺ increase to mimic this Ca²⁺ signaling. However, because it istechnically easier, most artificial activation methods produce a singleCa²⁺ increase, which is suboptimal for activating oocytes, as comparedto the repetitive Ca²⁺ increases observed after sperm-induced oocyteactivation.

Zn²⁺ is a key component which can maintain oocytes arrested at themetaphase II (MIT) stage and is necessary for activating MPF, as Zn²⁺regulates the activity of the cyclin-dependent kinase, CDC25. Inaddition, EMI2 (FBXO43), a zinc-binding protein, is required to maintainhigh MPF activity during the MII arrest, and the increase in totalintracellular Zn²⁺ during oocyte maturation directly controls FBXO43activity. Zn²⁺ is released from oocytes after fertilization indicatingthat removal of Zn²⁺ is a natural part of oocyte activation. Byutilizing a Zn²⁺ specific binding moiety, such as the Zn²⁺ chelatorTPEN, the natural process of oocyte activation can be stimulated thusincreasing the developmental potential of activated oocytes.

Artificial oocyte activation is an essential process during SCNT.Unfortunately, current artificial activation methods used during SCNTare suboptimal as they cannot completely emulate the sperm-inducednatural signaling pathway. Different strategies have been used toincrease the efficiency of artificial oocyte activation by lowering thelevel of MPF during artificial oocyte activation. However, due topotential toxicity, they are not widely used in cloned animalproduction, such as pig production.

For the methods of the present invention, intracellular Ca²⁺concentration may be increased by any conventional method known in theart. Such methods are known in the art would be fully appreciated andunderstood by one of skill in the art. One exemplary conventionalartificial oocyte activation method comprises treating an unfertilized(or nuclear transferred) oocyte with an oocyte-modifying agent, such asthimerosal, followed by a reducing agent, such as dithiothreitol (DTT)(U.S. Pat. No. 6,211,429). Additional methods include, withoutlimitation, various chemical, physical or mechanical stimuli. Forinstance, the use of a medium comprising any calcium salt, such asCaCl₂, or a compound that dissociates calcium; calcium ionophores, suchas ionomycin or A23187; use of a sodium-deficient or a sodium-freemedium; by electric shock in the presence of Ca²⁺; ethanol treatment; orcaged chelators which can release calcium inside the cell in response tospecific wavelengths or combinations of one or more of these stimuli.Reference is made to U.S. Pat. No. 6,211,429, which is incorporatedherein by reference for a general discussion on increasing intracellularcalcium in oocytes and the role of such an increase in artificial oocyteactivation.

As used to herein “Zn²⁺ binding moieties” or “Zn²⁺ removing agents”refer to any molecule or composition that is capable of binding,removing or sequestering Zn²⁺. For instance, in certain embodiments,Zn²⁺ binding moieties of the present invention may include Zn²⁺chelators. Such Zn²⁺ chelators include but are not limited toN,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine (TPEN), known tohave a high specificity toward Zn²⁺; clioquinol; anddiethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA). In particular embodiments,the concentration of Zn²⁺ binding moieties for use in the presentinvention can comprise approximately 0.01 μM to approximately 1 mM. Forinstance, from approximately 0.1 μM to approximately 500 μM,approximately 1 μM to approximately 250 μM, approximately 10 μM toapproximately 100 μM, approximately 200 μM to approximately 500 μM,approximately 200 μM to approximately 250 μM, approximately 100 μM toapproximately 500 μM, approximately 100 μM to approximately 250 μM,approximately 100 μM to approximately 200 μM, approximately 100 μM toapproximately 150 μM, approximately 50 μM to approximately 500 μM,approximately 50 μM to approximately 250 μM, approximately 50 μM toapproximately 200 μM, approximately 50 μM to approximately 150 μM,approximately 50 μM to approximately 100 μM, approximately 10 μM toapproximately 500 μM, approximately 10 μM to approximately 250 μM,approximately 10 μM to approximately 200 μM, approximately 10 μM toapproximately 150 μM, approximately 10 μM to approximately 50 μM,approximately 10 μM to approximately 20 μM, approximately 5 μM toapproximately 200 μM, approximately 5 μM to approximately 150 μM,approximately 5 μM to approximately 100 μM, approximately 5 μM toapproximately 50 μM, approximately 5 μM to approximately 20 μM,approximately 5 μM to approximately 10 μM, approximately 1 μM toapproximately 500 μM, approximately 1 μM to approximately 100 μM,approximately 1 μM to approximately 50 μM, approximately 1 μM toapproximately 20 μM, approximately 1 μM to approximately 10 μM,approximately 1 μM to approximately 5 μM, approximately 0.1 μM toapproximately 100 μM, approximately 0.1 μM to approximately 50 μM,approximately 0.1 μM to approximately 20 μM, approximately 0.1 μM toapproximately 10 μM, approximately 0.1 μM to approximately 5 μM,approximately 0.1 μM to approximately 1 μM or a range equivalentthereto.

The concentration of the Zn²⁺ binding moieties may therefore comprise inparticular embodiments approximately 0.01 μM, approximately 0.05 μM,approximately 0.1 μM, approximately 0.2 μM, approximately 0.5 μM,approximately 0.75 μM, approximately 1 μM, approximately 2 μM,approximately 3 μM, approximately 4 μM, approximately 5 μM,approximately 6 μM, approximately 7 μM, approximately 8 μM,approximately 9 μM, approximately 10 μM, approximately 11 μM,approximately 12 μM, approximately 13 μM, approximately 14 μM,approximately 15 μM, approximately 16 μM, approximately 17 μM,approximately 18 μM, approximately 19 μM, approximately 20 μM,approximately 25 μM, approximately 30 μM, approximately 35 μM,approximately 40 μM, approximately 45 μM, approximately 50 μM,approximately 55 μM, approximately 60 μM, approximately 65 μM,approximately 70 μM, approximately 75 μM, approximately 80 μM,approximately 85 μM, approximately 90 μM, approximately 95 μM,approximately 100 μM, approximately 110 μM, approximately 120 μM,approximately 130 μM, approximately 140 μM, approximately 150 μM,approximately 160 μM, approximately 170 μM, approximately 180 μM,approximately 190 μM, approximately 200 μM, approximately 210 μM,approximately 220 μM, approximately 230 μM, approximately 240 μM,approximately 250 μM, approximately 300 μM, approximately 350 μM,approximately 400 μM, approximately 450 μM, approximately 500 μM,approximately 550 μM, approximately 600 μM, approximately 650 μM,approximately 700 μM, approximately 750 μM, approximately 800 μM,approximately 850 μM, approximately 900 μM, approximately 950 μM,approximately 1000 μM or an amount equivalent thereto.

The period of time the oocytes are in contact with the Zn²⁺ bindingmoieties should be a period effective to result in activation thereofeither when preceded by an increase in intracellular calcium levels orin the absence of intracellular calcium level increase. Such timeperiods can be within the range of from approximately 1 minute toapproximately 12 hours. For instance, from approximately 1 minute toapproximately 5 hours, approximately 1 minute to approximately 2 hours,approximately 1 minute to approximately 1.5 hours, approximately 1minute to approximately 1 hour, approximately 1 minute to approximately45 minutes, approximately 1 minute to approximately 30 minutes,approximately 1 minute to approximately 20 minutes, approximately 1minute to approximately 15 minutes, approximately 1 minute toapproximately 10 minutes, approximately 1 minute to approximately 5minutes, approximately 5 minutes to approximately 12 hours,approximately 5 minutes to approximately 5 hours, approximately 5minutes to approximately 2 hours, approximately 5 minutes toapproximately 1.5 hours, approximately 5 minutes to approximately 1hour, approximately 5 minutes to approximately 45 minutes, approximately5 minutes to approximately 30 minutes, approximately 5 minutes toapproximately 20 minutes, approximately 5 minutes to approximately 15minutes, approximately 5 minutes to approximately 10 minutes,approximately 10 minutes to approximately 2.5 hours, approximately 10minutes to approximately 2 hours, approximately 10 minutes toapproximately 1.5 hours, approximately 10 minutes to approximately 1hour, approximately 10 minutes to approximately 45 minutes,approximately 10 minutes to approximately 30 minutes, approximately 10minutes to approximately 20 minutes, approximately 10 minutes toapproximately 15 minutes, approximately 30 minutes to approximately 2.5hours, approximately 30 minutes to approximately 2 hours, approximately30 minutes to approximately 1.5 hours, approximately 30 minutes toapproximately 1 hour, approximately 45 minutes to approximately 2.5hours, approximately 45 minutes to approximately 2 hours, approximately45 minutes to approximately 1.5 hours, approximately 45 minutes toapproximately 1 hour, approximately 1 hour to approximately 2.5 hours,approximately 1 hour to approximately 2 hours, approximately 1 hour toapproximately 1.5 hours, approximately 1.5 hours to approximately 2.5hours, approximately 1.5 hours to approximately 2 hours, approximately 2hours to approximately 2.5 hours or a range equivalent thereto.

The period of time the oocytes are in contact with the Zn²⁺ bindingmoieties may therefore comprise, approximately 1 minute, approximately 2minutes, approximately 3 minutes, approximately 4 minutes, approximately5 minutes, approximately 6 minutes, approximately 7 minutes,approximately 8 minutes, approximately 9 minutes, approximately 10minutes, approximately 11 minutes, approximately 12 minutes,approximately 13 minutes, approximately 14 minutes, approximately 15minutes, approximately 16 minutes, approximately 17 minutes,approximately 18 minutes, approximately 19 minutes, approximately 20minutes, approximately 25 minutes, approximately 30 minutes,approximately 35 minutes, approximately 40 minutes, approximately 45minutes, approximately 50 minutes, approximately 55 minutes,approximately 1 hour, approximately 1.25 hours, approximately 1.5 hours,approximately 1.75 hours, approximately 2 hours, approximately 2.25hours, approximately 2.5 hours, approximately 2.75 hours, approximately3 hours, approximately 3.5 hours, approximately 4 hours, approximately4.5 hours, approximately 5 hours, approximately 5.5 hours, approximately6 hours, approximately 6.5 hours, approximately 7 hours, approximately7.5 hours, approximately 8 hours, approximately 8.5 hours, approximately9 hours, approximately 9.5 hours, approximately 10 hours, approximately10.5 hours, approximately 11 hours, approximately 11.5 hours,approximately 12 hours, or a time equivalent thereto.

For those embodiments of the invention comprising decreasing theintracellular concentration of Zn²⁺ of the unfertilized oocytes precededby an increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ of the unfertilized oocyte, thestep of contacting the oocyte with a Zn²⁺ binding moieties afterincreasing the intracellular level of Ca²⁺ in the oocyte may occursubstantially immediately after the step of increasing the intracellularlevel of Ca²⁺ or may occur after a period of time comprising from about5 seconds to about 10 minutes or a range equivalent thereto. The Zn²⁺binding moiety may be added to the media in which the increase inintracellular Ca²⁺ occurred or the oocyte may be washed or transferredinto new media after the increase in intracellular Ca²⁺. In someembodiments, oocytes may be washed to remove the presence of the Zn²⁺binding moiety after activation. In further embodiments, activation ofoocytes may be determined microscopically, by observing pronuclearformation, extrusion of a polar body, division of the oocytes to the2-cell stage, or subsequent development to the blastocyst stage. Othermethods for confirming oocyte activation would be known by one of skillin the art and would be suitable for use with the present method.

The methods described herein are generally applicable to unfertilizedoocytes from a wide array of mammalian animals, including, but notlimited to, livestock mammals, domestic mammals, model animal mammals,and human or non-human mammals. As used to herein “livestock mammals”refer to any mammalian animal that is useful in an agricultural orlivestock setting, such as pig (porcine), cattle (bovine), sheep(ovine), goat, horse and buffalo. “Domestic mammals” refer herein to anymammal that has been domesticated by humans such that they are tame anddepend upon man for survival, such as cat (feline), dog (canine),rabbit, guinea pig, and hamster. “Model animal mammals” refer herein toany mammal used for scientific and health related research, such asmice, and rats. In certain embodiments these categories of mammals mayoverlap, for instance domestic mammals such as dogs may also beclassified as a model animal mammal.

In certain embodiments, the present methods of activating unfertilizedmammalian oocytes disclosed herein facilitate parthenogeneticdevelopment of such eggs so that development thereof can proceed to the2-cell stage, to at least the blastocyst stage, or anywhere in between,upon culturing in vitro or in vivo. In other embodiments, the presentmethods of oocyte activation may be employed in the field of mammaliancloning by nuclear transfer. In particular embodiments, the method ofthe present invention may be used in conjunction with conventionalmethods of mammalian cloning well known to those skilled in the art.Reference is made to First and Prather (Differentiation 48, 1991) andU.S. Pat. Nos. 4,994,384 and 6,211,429, which are incorporated herein byreference for a general discussion on nuclear transfer techniques.

The term “nuclear transfer” as used herein refers to a process oftransferring a nucleus of a cell of an adult, fetus, embryo, or cellline (referred to herein as “nuclear donor cell”) into an enucleatedoocyte (referred to herein as “recipient oocyte”). In certainembodiments, the enucleated oocyte referred to herein may comprise a MIIoocyte from which the MII arrested chromosomes have been removed. A MIIoocyte is referred to herein as “enucleated” despite comprisingchromosomes arrested in metaphase and not comprising a membrane-boundnucleus. Oocytes for use in the present invention may be matured priorto nuclear transfer. Such maturation may be done either in vitro or invivo using methods known in the art.

The resulting cell obtained by the nuclear transfer is referred toherein as a “nucleus-transferred oocyte,” “nuclear transfer oocyte,”“somatic cell nuclear transfer oocyte,” or “somatic cell nucleartransfer embryo.” The term nuclear donor cell may refer to any cell witha nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (2n).

In certain embodiments, the methods of the present invention may involvethe use of donor cells, for example those from a cell line, that havebeen genetically engineered using methods well known in the art (forinstance as disclosed in Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in MolecularBiology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1989, and Sambrook et al., MolecularCloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989) with a gene or otherstructural coding sequence of interest that may have been geneticallymodified prior to carrying out nuclear transfer. In this case, theproduct would be a transgenic animal with a modified characteristic.Alternatively, the donor nucleus may have been genetically modified byusing other methods, such as mega-nucleases, that do not necessarilyleave a genetic footprint, such as a transgene or selectable marker.Reference is made to Whyte et al. (Mol. Reprod. Dev., 78, 2011), Lee etal. (PNAS, 11, 2014), and Whitworth et al. (Biology of Reproduction, 91,2014), for examples of mega-nucleases, such as zinc finger nucleases,TALENs, and CRISPR/Cas9 systems, respectively, the disclosure of whichare incorporated herein.

Introduction of a nucleus from a donor cell into an enucleated recipientoocyte to form an oocyte containing the donor nucleus can be performedby fusing together the membrane of a membrane-bound nucleus from thedonor cell with the membrane of the enucleated recipient oocyte to forman oocyte containing the nucleus from the donor cell. Alternatively,such introduction can be performed by microinjecting the nucleus fromthe donor cell into the enucleated recipient oocyte to form an oocytecontaining the nucleus from the donor cell. As those of ordinary skillin the art are aware, further alternative means exist for introducingdonor nuclear material into a recipient oocyte. For example, and not byway of limitation, one can introduce a donor cell (or nucleus) into thespace under the zona pellucida or into the perivitelline space of theenucleated, recipient oocyte, and then subsequently carry out membranefusion to produce an oocyte containing within its cytoplasm the donornucleus. All means of introducing donor nuclear material into anenucleated recipient oocyte known to those of ordinary skill in the artare useful in the methods disclosed herein.

In certain embodiments the present invention provides mammalian animalsproduced though nuclear transfer, also referred to as cloned animals,that result from a nuclear transferred oocyte or nuclear transferredembryo activated by methods disclosed herein. Such animals are distinctfrom the animals from which the donor nucleus originated, referred toherein as a “donor animal.” For instance, in certain embodimentsalthough such cloned animals comprise the same genomic DNA as that ofthe donor nucleus, cell or animal from which the donor nucleusoriginated, the cloned animal may comprise distinct characteristicsdistinguishing it from the donor animal. In particular, embodiments, thecloned animal may comprise mitochondrial DNA or epigenetic traits orcharacteristics distinct from that of the donor animal. Suchdistinctions would be well understood and known by those of skill in theart.

Unlike nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA of an offspring, including animalsproduced through nuclear transfer, is inherited from the maternalparent, i.e. from the oocyte. A cloned animal would likely thereforecomprise distinct mitochondrial DNA from that of a donor animal.Mitochondrial DNA drives the function of the cell's mitochondria andthus cellular respiration. Distinctions in mitochondrial DNA cantherefore result in distinctions in mitochondrial function and cellularrespiration.

Additionally, although cloned animals may comprise the same nucleargenomic sequence, the epigenetic markers or features associated with thenuclear genome may in certain embodiments be distinct from those of thedonor animal. Although in certain embodiments some epigenetic markers orfeatures may be inherited, referred to as transgenerational epigeneticmarkers, and thus remain unaltered between donor animal and clonedanimal, many epigenetic markers or features are removed duringdevelopment (referred to in the art as “reprogramming”).

Such epigenetic markers or features that may differ between donor andcloned animal may comprise, but are not limited to, DNA methylation,histone modifications, imprinting, gene silencing, and X chromosomeinactivation. In particular embodiments of the invention, the result ofsuch epigenetic distinctions between a donor and cloned animal mayinclude distinctions in gene or protein expression, thus may alteringthe phenotype of resulting animal. One example of such phenotypicdistinction between cloned and donor animals can be seen in the originalcloned cat, known in the art as “CopyCat.” The nuclear donor for CopyCatwas a calico cat but due to epigenetic changes between the donor andCopyCat (specifically X inactivation) CopyCat has a coloration distinctfrom that of the donor cat despite the two cats comprising the samenuclear genome. The genetic and epigenetic differences between clonedand donor animals, including but not limited to those discussed above,are known in the art.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodimentsof the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the artthat the techniques disclosed in the examples, which follow representtechniques discovered by the inventor to function well in the practiceof the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferredmodes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, inlight of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can bemade in the specific embodiments, which are disclosed and still obtain alike or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe invention.

Example 1 Oocyte Maturation

Oocytes were obtained from either pre-pubertal gilt ovaries from anabattoir (Farmland Foods Inc., Milan, Mo.), or sow-derived oocytes thatwere purchased from Applied Reproductive Technology (Madison, Wis.).Immature oocytes from gilt ovaries were aspirated from medium size (3-6mm) follicles by using an 18 gauge hypodermic needle attached to a 10 mLsyringe. Oocytes with evenly dark cytoplasm and intact surroundingcumulus cells were then selected for maturation. Around 50 cumulusoocyte complexes were place in a well containing 500 μL of maturationmedium, TCM 199 (Invitrogen, Grand Island, N.Y.) with 3.05 mM glucose,0.91 mM sodium pyruvate, 0.57 mM cysteine, 10 ng/mL epidermal growthfactor (EGF), 0.5 mg/mL luteinizing hormone (LH), 0.5 mg/mL folliclestimulating hormone (FSH), 10 ng/mL gentamicin (APP Pharm, Schaumburg,Ill.), and 0.1% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) for 42-44 hr at 38.5° C., 5%CO₂, in humidified air. The oocytes from sows were shipped overnight inmaturation medium (TCM199 with 2.9 mM Hepes, 5 mg/mL insulin, 10 ng/mLEGF, 0.5 mg/mL p-FSH, 0.91 mM pyruvate, 0.5 mM cysteine, 10% porcinefollicular fluid, 25 ng/mL gentamicin) and transferred into fresh mediumat 24 hr. At the end of the maturation, the surrounding cumulus cellswere removed from the oocytes by vortexing for 3 min in the presence of0.1% hyaluronidase. Oocytes with a visible polar body were selected inmanipulation medium (TCM 199 with 0.6 mM NaHCO₃, 2.9 mM Hepes, 30 mMNaCl, 10 ng/mL gentamicin, and 3 mg/mL bovine serum albumin [BSA]; andosmolarity of 305) and then used for the experiments.

Example 2 Various Oocyte Activation Methods

Different oocyte activation methods were used for the experiments. Asconventional activation methods, either electrical or chemicalactivation was used. For electrical activation, mature oocytes wereactivated in activation medium (0.3 M mannitol, 1.0 mM CaCl₂, 0.1 mMMgCl₂, and 0.5 mM Hepes) by two direct-current (DC) pulses (1-secinterval) at 1.2 kV/cm for 30 μsec (using BTX Electro Cell Manipulator,Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, Mass.). For chemical activation, matureoocytes were incubated in Hepes-buffered Tyrode's lactate (TL-Hepes)media in the presence of 200 mM thimerosal for 10 min in the darkfollowed by 8 mM dithiothreitol for 30 min. For TPEN mediatedactivation, mature oocytes were incubated in TL-Hepes media with variousconcentrations of TPEN for different durations.

Activated oocytes were washed three times in PZM3 then incubated at38.5° C., 5% CO₂ until the embryos were examined on either day 2, 6 or7. At the end of the culture, where applicable, the frequency of cleavedembryos and blastocysts, and total cell number in the blastocysts wererecorded. Hoechst 33342 (1.2 mg/mL) was used to stain nuclei and theembryos were then evaluated by epi-fluorescence microscopy.

Example 3 Intracellular Calcium Measurement

The zonae pellucidae were removed after maturation and zona-free oocyteswere loaded with the Ca²⁺ indicator dye, fura-2. For this purpose, theywere incubated in the presence of 2 mM of the acetoxymethyl ester formof the dye and 0.02% pluronic F-127 for 40-50 min (both fromInvitrogen). The dye loaded oocytes were transferred into a chamber witha cover-glass bottom and the chamber was then placed on the heated stageof an inverted microscope. Changes in the intracellular free Ca²⁺concentration were recorded using InCytIm2, a dual-wavelengthfluorescence imaging system (Intracellular Imaging, Inc.; Cincinnati,Ohio). During measurements the emitted fluorescence was detected at 510nm after exciting the dye alternately at 340 and 380 nm. The ratio ofthe two emitted fluorescence intensities was calculated and the data arepresented as fluorescence ratio values. Ratios of 1.0 and 5.0 correspondto about 100 and 1,200 nM Ca²⁺, respectively. In each treatment groupthe measurements were repeated at least 5 times using different oocytes.

Example 4 Parthenogenetic Activation of Porcine Oocytes by TPEN

Metaphase II porcine oocytes were incubated in vitro with TPEN todetermine if the concentration/duration of 100 μM of TPEN for 45 min, asdescribed in the mouse study by Suzuki, et al. (Development 137,2659-2669, 2010) had any effect on pig oocytes. The protocol describedby Suzuki, et al. could activate pig oocytes, however, the developmentwas inferior to conventional artificial activation methods. Frequency offorming blastocysts on day 7 was comparable to the conventional oocyteactivation method (13% vs. 15%, respectively) but the rate of blastocystformation was slower. No blastocyst formation was observed on day 5 withthe TPEN treatment whereas 10% of activated embryos reached blastocystsin the control group. In addition, no expanded blastocysts were derivedfrom the TPEN activation group on day 7, indicating lower developmentalcompetency of the embryos derived from the TPEN activation method.

A wide range of TPEN concentrations/durations was tested to identify anoptimum concentration of TPEN that can activate pig oocytes; 100 μM, 200μM, and 250 μM and 30 min-2.5 hours of duration were tested (Table 1).Optimum embryo development was achieved by using 200 μM TPEN for 30 min.Although the frequency of blastocyst formation was not statisticallysuperior to a conventional activation method, a numerical increase inblastocyst formation was observed. A lower total number of nuclei inblastocysts was observed in the embryos derived from the optimal TPENactivation group (200 μM, 30 min), compared to the control (27.2±1.92vs. 32.6±3.12, respectively, P<0.01). When oocytes were incubated in 250μM TPEN over 2.5 hours, a toxic effect of TPEN was observed. The 250 μMTPEN treatment over 2.5 hours blocked embryo development as there was noblastocyst formation. An optimum concentration of TPEN whichsuccessfully induced development of activated oocytes was identified,but the total number of nuclei in these embryos was lower compared tothe conventional activation method.

TABLE 1 Porcine oocytes activated with TPEN alone. Treatment Totalnumber of oocytes % blastocysts Electroporation 98 11.2% 100 μM, 2 hr 6512.0% 200 μM, 30 min 25 23.0% 200 μM, 1 hr 79 20.0% 250 μM, 2 hr 3010.0% 250 μM, 2.5 hr 25   0%

Example 5 Treatment of Activated Oocytes with TPEN

Treatment of activated oocytes with TPEN was investigated for thepotential to increase the efficiency of oocyte activation. Whenchemically activated oocytes were incubated with TPEN (100 μM, 45 min),no blastocyst formation was observed suggesting the combination of thetwo methods is toxic to embryos. It was hypothesized that thedetrimental effect was due to excess stimuli from Ca²⁺ signaling andTPEN. Therefore, lower concentrations of TPEN were introduced afteractivating oocytes with a conventional method. Incubating activatedoocytes with a lower concentration of TPEN increased developmentalpotential of parthenogenetic embryos. Interestingly, when activatedoocytes were incubated with a low concentration of TPEN (5-10 μM) theTPEN treated group surprisingly showed higher developmental potentialcompared to the control group. Specifically, the average percentblastocyst formation of TPEN treated oocytes (5 μM for 30 min) was27.2±1.7% but only 10.6±2.5% developed to blastocyst in the controlgroup (Table 2). Moreover, the average number of nuclei in blastocystswas higher in TPEN treated oocytes compared to the control group whichwas activated by thimerosal/DTT approach (Table 2).

TABLE 2 Incubation of TPEN can increase development potential ofactivated oocytes. Different letters indicate statistical difference (p< 0.05). Total Total cell number of % % number in Treatment embryoscleaved Blastocysts blastocysts THI/DTT 113 59.3^(a) 10.6^(a) 28.2 ±2.1^(a) THI/DTT + 5 μM 114 74.6^(b) 27.2^(b) 33.1 ± 2.6^(b) TPEN, 30 minTHI/DTT + 10 μM 83 81.9^(b) 21.7^(b) 31.2 ± 2.6^(b) TPEN, 10 min

Next, the optimal concentration and duration of TPEN (5 μM, 30 min) wasused to artificially activate reconstructed SCNT embryos. There was anincrease in frequency of blastocyst formation when activated SCNTembryos were treated with TPEN (7.9% vs. 18.6%, respectively) (Table 3).This increase in development was comparable to the effect of Scriptaid,a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, known to increase developmentalpotential of SCNT embryos. Thus lower concentrations of TPEN (5-10 μM)can enhance embryo development when introduced after conventional oocyteactivation.

TABLE 3 In vitro development of SCNT embryos treated with Scriptaid orTPEN alone. Different letters indicate statistical difference (p <0.05). Treatment Number of embryos % Blastocysts SCNT (control) 767.9%^(a) SCNT + Scriptaid 194 22.7%^(b) SCNT + 5 μM TPEN, 30 min 10218.6%^(b)

Example 6 TPEN can Serve as the Main Activating Reagent

It was hypothesized that a proper combination of Ca²⁺ signal and TPENcan increase the developmental potential of activated oocytes. Theability of TPEN as the main activating reagent was therefore tested.First, oocytes received an intracellular Ca²⁺ increase throughelectroporation, although the concentration of Ca²⁺ (0.1 mM) in theelectroporation media was not sufficient to induce oocyte activation.Then the oocytes were incubated with various concentrations (1 μM, 5 μM,10 μM, 100 μM and 200 μM) and durations (10 minutes, 20 minutes, 30minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, and overnight) of TPEN. The combination of asmaller Ca²⁺ increase and lower concentration of TPEN (10 μM) resultedin 0 day 6 blastocysts. Surprisingly, oocytes activated by a smallerCa²⁺ increase followed by TPEN incubation at higher concentration (100μM or above) could successfully activate oocytes and some combinationsresulted in a superior in vitro development compared to the oocytesactivated by a conventional method (Table 4). Additionally, oocytesincubated in 1 μM TPEN overnight presented an increased number ofblastocysts at day 6 and 7, although the observed cell numbers in day 7blastocysts were decreased (24.80±7.84) as compared to oocytes incubatedin 10 μM TPEN for 1 hour (30.17±5.97), 10 μM TPEN for 2 hours(29.63±10.47) or 100 μM TPEN for 20 minutes (50.75±17.94). Optimaloocyte activation was observed when oocytes were activated by a smallerCa²⁺ signal followed by incubating in 200 μM TPEN for 30 min.

TABLE 4 Effect of TPEN as a main oocyte activating reagent. Differentletters indicate statistical difference (p < 0.05). Number of Day 6 Day7 Treatment embryos Blastocysts (%) Blastocysts (%) Control -electroporation 80   13.75^(a)   17.5^(a) 10 μM, 30 min 40  0^(b)  5^(b)10 μM, 1 hour 40 15^(a)   22.5^(a) 10 μM, 2 hours 40 15^(a) 25^(a) 100μM, 10 min 40 15^(a) 15^(a) 100 μM, 20 min 40 25^(a) 30^(a) 200 μM, 30min 81   37.04^(c)   41.98^(c) 200 μM, 1 hour 80   18.75^(a)   27.5^(a)

Additionally, the effect of the TPEN activation method alone on thedevelopment of SCNT embryos was tested. For this assay, SCNT embryoswere activated using either the conventional thimerosal/DTT method orTPEN (TPEN as a major activating reagent). Although no statisticaldifference was observed, likely due to the small number of observations,a numerical increase was observed for embryos activated using TPEN asthe major activating reagent as compared to those activated using theconventional thimerosal/DTT method during SCNT procedure (Table 5).

TABLE 5 Effect of TPEN activation method on the development of SCNTembryos. Day 6 blastocyst Day 7 blastocyst Activation method formationformation THI/DTT 23.3% (7/30) 26.7% (8/30)  TPEN (200 μM, 25.8% (8/31)35.5% (11/31) 30 min)

Example 7 No Ca²⁺ Increase is Observed in Pig Oocytes after Exposure toTPEN

To demonstrate that TPEN treatment is stimulating signaling pathwaysindependent of Ca²⁺ signaling, oocytes were exposed to TPEN then theamount of intracellular Ca²⁺ was measured. As expected, no Ca²⁺ increasewas detected when oocytes were exposed to a range of TPEN (5, 10, and200 μM), while oocytes incubated with thimerosal, serving as a positivecontrol, could induce Ca²⁺ increase (FIG. 1). This indicates that thebenefit of TPEN observed during oocyte activation experiments isindependent of Ca²⁺ signaling pathway.

Example 8 In Vivo Development Competence of SCNT Embryos Activated byUtilizing TPEN

To address in vivo competency of SCNT embryos activated by utilizingTPEN, a series of embryo transfers were performed. For the study, at day1, the SCNT-derived embryos were surgically transferred into theampullary-isthmic junction of a surrogate gilt at 0 or 1 days afterobserved estrus. At the end of gestation periods, piglets were recoveredthrough C-section.

Six embryo transfers were performed for the study and two surrogatescarried their pregnancy to term, each resulting in two healthy piglets(Table 6). One of the term development was from SCNT embryos that werenot treated with a HDAC inhibitor, Scriptaid. The resulting full termdevelopment indicates that TPEN is compatible with SCNT development toterm and suggests that the TPEN technology is not toxic to the SCNTembryos. None of the resulting animals displayed any health relatedissues at birth as are sometime observed with cloned animals, and theyhave produced progeny.

TABLE 6 Result of embryo transfer. Number of embryos Treatmenttransferred Result SCNT + 5 μM TPEN, 30 min + 207 2 normal pigletsScriptaid were delivered SCNT + 5 μM TPEN, 30 min + 245 Cycled ScriptaidSCNT + 10 μM TPEN, 10 180 Cycled min + Scriptaid SCNT + 5 μM TPEN, 30min 280 2 normal piglets were delivered SCNT + 5 μM TPEN, 30 min 230Cycled SCNT + 5 μM TPEN, 30 min 280 Cycled

Example 9 Statistical Analysis

Differences in the frequency of blastocyst formation was determinedafter analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the PROC MIX procedure of theStatistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, Cary, N.C., USA) orChi-square test. Percentage data was arcsin transformed prior to theANOVA analysis. Average total number of nuclei in blastocysts wascompared by using the Student's T-test. Differences with P<0.05 wereconsidered significant.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of activating an unfertilized livestockor domestic mammalian oocyte comprising decreasing intracellular Zn²⁺concentration of the oocyte by contacting the oocyte with a Zn²⁺ bindingmoiety.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moietycomprises a concentration of between approximately 10 μM toapproximately 500 μM.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the Zn²⁺ bindingmoiety comprises a concentration of between approximately 100 μM toapproximately 250 μM.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the Zn²⁺ bindingmoiety comprises a concentration of approximately 200 μM.
 5. The methodof claim 1, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety contacts the oocyte for aperiod of time comprising between approximately 1 minute toapproximately 5 hours.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the Zn²⁺binding moiety contacts the oocyte for a period of time comprisingbetween approximately 30 minutes to approximately 2.5 hours.
 7. Themethod of claim 6, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety contacts the oocytefor a period of time comprising approximately 30 minutes.
 8. The methodof claim 1, further comprising the step of increasing intracellular Ca²⁺concentration of the oocyte prior to decreasing the intracellular Zn²⁺concentration of the oocyte.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein theintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte is not increased in anamount sufficient to induce oocyte activation.
 10. The method of claim9, wherein the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte isincreased approximately ten times less than the amount sufficient toinduce oocyte activation.
 11. The method of claim 9, wherein the Zn²⁺binding moiety comprises a concentration of between approximately 1 μMto approximately 500 μM.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the Zn²⁺binding moiety comprises a concentration of between approximately 100 μMto approximately 200 μM.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the Zn²⁺binding moiety comprises a concentration of approximately 200 μM. 14.The method of claim 9, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety contacts theoocyte for a period of time comprising between approximately 1 minutesto approximately 12 hours.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the Zn²⁺binding moiety contacts the oocyte for a period of time comprisingbetween approximately 10 minutes to approximately 2 hours.
 16. Themethod of claim 15, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety contacts the oocytefor a period of time comprising approximately 30 minutes.
 17. The methodof claim 8, wherein the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyteis increased in an amount sufficient to induce oocyte activation. 18.The method of claim 17, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety comprises aconcentration of between approximately 0.1 μM to approximately 100 μM.19. The method of claim 18, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety comprises aconcentration of between approximately 1 μM to approximately 10 μM. 20.The method of claim 19, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety comprises aconcentration of approximately 5 μM.
 21. The method of claim 19, whereinthe Zn²⁺ binding moiety comprises a concentration of approximately 10μM.
 22. The method of claim 17, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety contactsthe oocyte for a period of time comprising between approximately 1minutes to approximately 5 hours.
 23. The method of claim 22, whereinthe Zn²⁺ binding moiety contacts the oocyte for a period of timecomprising between approximately 10 minutes to approximately 30 minutes.24. The method of claim 23, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety contacts theoocyte for a period of time comprising approximately 30 minutes.
 25. Themethod of claim 8, wherein the intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of theoocyte is increased by chemical or physical means or a combinationthereof that induce calcium entry into the oocyte or release of internalcalcium stores.
 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the increase in theintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte by chemical meanscomprises treatment with a calcium containing medium, a calcium saltcontaining medium, thimerosal containing medium, ethanol containingmedium, inositol trisphosphate containing medium, a calcium ionophorecontaining medium, a sodium-free medium or a combination thereof. 27.The method of claim 26, wherein the chemical treatment comprisestreatment with a medium comprising a Ca²⁺ concentration of betweenapproximately 0.1 mM and approximately 250 mM.
 28. The method of claim27, wherein the chemical treatment comprises treatment with a mediumcomprising a Ca²⁺ concentration of between approximately 0.1 mM and 1mM.
 29. The method of claim 25, wherein the increase in theintracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte by physical meanscomprises application of an electrical stimulus.
 30. The method of claim1, wherein the Zn²⁺ binding moiety comprises TPEN(N,N,N′,N′-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine).
 31. The methodof claim 1, wherein the unfertilized livestock or domestic mammalianoocyte is a nuclear transfer oocyte.
 32. The method of claim 1, whereinthe unfertilized livestock or domestic mammalian oocyte is selected fromthe group consisting of a porcine oocyte, bovine oocyte, ovine oocyte,goat oocyte, horse oocyte, canine oocyte and feline oocyte.
 33. Aparthenogenetic oocyte activated by the method of claim
 1. 34. A nucleartransfer oocyte activated by the method of claim
 1. 35. A viablelivestock or domestic mammalian animal produced from an unfertilizedlivestock or domestic mammalian oocyte activated by the method of claim1, wherein said animal comprises the genomic DNA from a donor cell otherthan the oocyte and the mitochondrial DNA from the oocyte.
 36. Theviable livestock or domestic mammalian animal of claim 35, wherein theanimal comprises epigenetic features different from the epigeneticfeatures of the donor cell.
 37. The viable livestock or domesticmammalian animal of claim 36, wherein the epigenetic features differentfrom the epigenetic features of the donor cell are DNA methylation sitesor histone modifications.
 38. The viable livestock or domestic mammaliananimal of claim 35, wherein the animal is selected from the groupconsisting of a porcine animal, bovine animal, ovine animal, goat,horse, dog and cat.
 39. A method of activating an unfertilized mammalianoocyte comprising increasing intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of theoocyte by contacting the oocyte with a medium comprising a calciumconcentration of approximately 0.1 mM and decreasing intracellular Zn²⁺concentration of the oocyte by contacting the oocyte with a Zn²⁺ bindingmoiety at a concentration of approximately 200 μM for a period of timecomprising approximately 30 minutes.
 40. A method of activating anunfertilized mammalian oocyte comprising increasing intracellular Ca²⁺concentration of the oocyte by contacting the oocyte with a mediumcomprising a calcium concentration of approximately 1.0 mM anddecreasing intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration of the oocyte by contactingthe oocyte with a Zn²⁺ binding moiety at a concentration ofapproximately 5 μM for a period of time comprising approximately 30minutes.
 41. A method of activating an unfertilized mammalian oocytecomprising increasing intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration of the oocyte bycontacting the oocyte with a medium comprising a calcium concentrationof approximately 1.0 mM and decreasing intracellular Zn²⁺ concentrationof the oocyte by contacting the oocyte with a Zn²⁺ binding moiety at aconcentration of approximately 10 μM for a period of time comprisingapproximately 30 minutes.